The gender issue (violence/discrimination against women) in the workplace

The gender issue has been widely discussed in the tourism literature with different views, theories, and approaches. Because of cultural, religious, economic, ethnic, and such other factors influence, and are influenced by, both gender issue and tourism (Aitchison, 2001: Kinnaaird & Hall, 1996; M. Swain, 1995; Tucker, 2007). In this study record, different views and theories of different authors have been compared and contrasted on the basis of the impression gathered from the Image Set 5. The changes in those various factors over time have also been examined as a strategy for this write-up. Moreover, the feminist stand has also been taken to explain the overall condition of women in tourism. Let us begin with the seed write-up. It is referred to in the journal

Hazel Tucker and Brenden Boonabaana (2012) Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Department of Tourism, University of Otago, New Zealand

That women have to face various types of obstacles when they seek employment opportunity in tourism work just because of gender identity (P 1). So, there were efforts to overcome those constraints by “economic empowerment” of women through tourism. But in a poor economic setting, the unemployment opportunities, even for male are very inadequate let alone the female economic empowerment, especially in the third world countries.

It is argued that the previous theories are mostly “Eurocentric”. But, according to Hazel Tucker and Brenden Boonabaana we should to go beyond Europe to deal with the issue in a global context. So, they choose two “non-western settings” that are suitable and ideal for their theme development. While these two settings have several similarities, they also differ in many respects beyond their different religious contexts. In both settings shift in “moral and spatial boundaries” increased the participation of women in tourism related works as part of an endeavor to reduce poverty. Thus, the social status of women elevated as they started earning from tourism related work. Still, in both non-western settings, women’s employment in the tourism related works are largely dictated by men due to social, cultural and religious norms. We find the support in favor of these views in the following journal:

Singh, S (2007). Deconstructing “gender and development for “identities of women”. International Journal of Social Welfare, 16, 100-109.

The finding by Singh, S (2007) is like H. Tucker and B. Boonabaana because he finds that women are dependent on their respective family and household for social, economic and emotional support. Therefore, western feminism seems to be both unrealistic and irrelevant. However, the overall feministic approach of Hazel Tucker and Brenden Boonabaana (2005) also finds support by Singh as a woman’s identity is ambiguous; they are powerful and powerless simultaneously. But this fact remains overlooked in most of the tourism and feminist literatures (Singh, 2007, p. 106). Moreover, the women who work in the tourism industry have to take the burden of household chores and child caring besides their profession outside of the family. So, it is very difficult for the women to take formal employment.

Fuguson, L. (2010). Tourism development and the restructuring of social reproduction in Central America. Review of International Political Economy

Farguson (2010) agrees with the sentiment made above. The emphasis in many cultural contexts of women’s household and reproductive responsibilities can also severely limit women’s ability to work outside the home and in tourism (Ferguson, 2010). He, too, is supported by Sonmez (2001). Where social norms restrict women to domestic space, women might miss out altogether with formal employment opportunities, and this may be particularly prominent in certain socially conservative Muslim societies (Sonmez, 2001).

In contrast, it has been noted that tourism can offer possibilities for gender roles and relationships to be negotiated (Gibson, 2001; Long & Wall, 1995’ Meethan, 2001; Scheyvens, 2000; Sinclair, 1997; Swain & Wallentin, 2008). Then when it comes to considering the tourism and gender issues, it is important to know how this is renegotiated and what the consequences will be there.

M Thea Sinclair, Gender, Work and Tourism (1997), London: Routledge

As alleged by H. Tucker and B. Boonabaana (2005), the authors of this topic depend on the European settings for their research. It is told that the provision of accommodation in tourism alters prevailing gender norms and enables Greek women to gain increased income and power (Castelberg-Koulma, 1991). But, the sentiment is similar to those of H. Tucker and B. Boonabaana when it is said in this book that differentiation of works between those of women and men in tourism related works is prevalent in most of the tourist spots across the world. Social norms on gender influence both in labor supply and demand within the tourism sector. Demand depends on the tourists’ nature as a consumer. (M Thea Sinclair, p5).  

Swain, R.B, & Wallentin, F.Y. (2008). Economic or no-economic factors –what empowers women? Unpublished working paper, Department of Economics, Upsala University

It is argued that the process of women’s empowerment in relation to tourism development can only take place when women will be able to challenge the current social and cultural norms they will be able to deal with their betterment with all of their own accords (2008, p. 24). This sentiment similar is also like that, what argument laid down by H. Tucker and B. Boonabaana in the article we are working on; women’s free choices are subject to the social and cultural norms. And it is evident from the image set 5 that women from different cultural sects wearing different clothes and ornaments.

Vivian Kinnaird, Derek R. Hall, Tourism: A Gender Analysis, John Wiley & Sons 1994

In this book, the gender issues in tourism industry explained from the feminist point of view. But unlike Hazel Tucker and Brenden Boonabaana (2005), who mainly confined their studies within  two given settings, Vivian Kinnaird, Derek R. Hall tried to explain the gender issues in the tourism sector with a broad review of the field in this book. This particular book contains a selection of case studies ranging from sex tourism in South-East Asia and gender in tourism sector the impact of tourism on women in traditional societies. The book also introduces a range of conceptual models for the study of this theme, together with suggestions for future research agendas.

Kristen Ghodsee, The Red Riviera: Gender, Tourism, and Postsocialism on the Black Sea

Duke University Press, 2005

This book challenges the idea that women consistently subdued by the gender issues. While H. Tucker and B. Boonabaana (2005)  did not confine themselves to a feminist point of view, based on the findings procured from the tourist spots of Bulgaria, Kristen Ghodsee (2005) explains the employment or “economic empowerment” of women from the only feminist point of view. This book explains that women have progressed far in changing their social and economic conditions, though there are so many impediments to their progress. Hopefully, even at the highest levels of management, employment in the tourism industry has long been dominated by women in some climes, especially in Bulgaria. Kristen Ghodsee (2005) explains why this is and how women working in the industry have successfully negotiated their way through Bulgaria’s capitalist transformation.

However, Ghodsee (p2) summarized her theme with a quotation of an overly smart female tourist worker, “So much has changed since 1989 ... And so much has stayed the same.” Ghodsee (2005) suggests that many of the NGOs ignore the significant professional successes on the basis of wrong notions. In this book, however, it is apparent that sex has played a great role in the market of tourism.

Margaret Byrne Swain, Janet Henshall Momsen, Gender/tourism/fun(?), Cognizant Communication Corp., 2002

The authors of this book also deal with the gender and tourism related issues from the feminist point of view. The authors explain that tourism has brought fortunes for women in their progress toward “economic empowerment”. However, Margaret Byrne Swain, Janet Henshall Momsen (2002) also concentrate on the gender issue beyond the tourism industry. Here they cite some examples where the women have progressed a lot in the education. Due to increasing participation of women in the tourism industry paved the way for them for imparting education. So, as the example of the high status of women from the viewpoint of social, economic and gender issues, the authors show that women are teaching in the universities on tourism related subjects (p202).

Stroma Cole, Nigel Morgan, Tourism and Inequality: Problems and Prospects, CABI, 2010

Going to find out the prospects of reducing gender inequality in the society with the passage of rapid expansion, tourism, the authors explore the increasing need for a better understanding of its consequences. Based on the western settings, UK and Ireland, the authors provide a synthesis of tourism as a source of injustice. The authors argue that tourism and gender inequality addresses a wide range of interrelated forms of inequality, investigating its association with the class, nation, ethnicity, race, gender, disability, and age (see image set 5). They also examine routes towards social justice and initiatives as per ethics and human rights (p107). Moreover, the analysis of a wide variety of case studies from around the world allows an exploration into the ways that tourism can be used positively to alleviate the impacts of social injustice. Providing a unique multidisciplinary perspective, the authors aim to lead the way towards a more socially responsible future for tourism practice. Stroma Cole, Nigel Morgan (2010) goes close to that of Hazel Tucker and Brenden Boonabaana (2005) to remark that even in these days, the synthesis of tourism related literatures on inequality, exclusion, and injustice has been limited.  So, there are efforts to reflect the “broader theoretical debates” as it demonstrates a ‘critical turn’ (p16). This book not only deals with the challenges but also ways to overcome the challenges. There are calls for the tourism industry to take steps to achieve equalities in various spheres (p17).

Yiorgos Apostolopoulos, Sevil F. Sönmez, Dallen J. Timothy, Women as Producers and Consumers of Tourism in Developing Regions, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001

The authors of this book considered gender issues in tourism sector considering women as consumers. Women experience a different tone when they travel beyond their social norms. (p10). This argument is similar to that of Hazel Tucker and Brenden Boonabaana (2005).        In this book, it is also argued that as traveler women venture to move beyond the cage of social, cultural and religious norms. Moreover, it is also argued that tourism has become the world's largest industry, according to the World Tourism Organization, although it relates to the primitive profession. This book also considers these issues from a broad sense. The authors of this book also agree with the sentiment of Hazel Tucker and Brenden Boonabaana (2012) in this sense that although various authors discussed the topic but there is a gulf of difference between their considerations, that means the gender issues in the tourism sector “remain little understand” (Hazel Tucker and Brenden Boonabaana, p01). The contributors of this book demonstrate the many ways in which gender determines the roles they play as both tourists and providers of tourism as product and service. Although the tourism industry developed rapidly in some parts of the world, yet there are some areas gender issue defines tourism activities (p 10). Women’s profession in the tourism industry is always viewed with gendered eyes, and this idea can be related to the image set 5. This book is a valuable contribution to the literature of tourism studies and women's studies.

A. Pritchard, N. Morgan, I. Ateljevic, C. Harris, Tourism and Gender: Embodiment, Sensuality and Experience, CABI, 2007

This book seeks to advance the feminist and gender tourism literature focusing on the embodiment. While H. Tucker and B. Boonabaana approach to their themes within a limited context, A. Pritchard, N. Morgan, I. Ateljevic, C. Harris tries to discuss the themes broadly and their discussion includes: the making of literatures; the way the propositions of luster, sensuality, and sexuality surpasses the tourism works; the display of the body; and how travel and tourism provides opportunities for women empowerment. This also brought the other factors such as food, water, sanitation, health care and education into consideration while explaining their stand. As a matter of fact, poverty shows a woman’s face almost all over the world more or less as the image set 5 denotes (Booth-Blair, 2005) (p2). One of the contributors of this book, A Pitchard argues that if the similar opportunity like that man is not provided to women, their position and status will not reach the position and status of men in the higher level job (p2). This book also seeks to deal with the gender and tourism issues from political, social, economic, religious and other factors, however, focused on education in this regard. Moreover, all the contributors of this relied upon data and information from a global context to provide an overall impression of the topics. Women’s political empowerment (status) is also examined in this book. It is stated that “85% of the world’s parliamentary seats are held by men (Inter-Parliamentary Union, May 2004)” (p2). It is also argued that in the tourism industry, women are, generally, employed in jobs that supposed to be fit in their traditional or domestic roles. As the image set no. 5 suggests, riding camels is supposed to be men’s work, and social norms cannot think a woman on a camel, especially in Indian Sub-continent, the Middle East and part of Africa. On the contrary, women are denied in the higher posts such as directorship (p5). Therefore, even in the hostile environment, there is a call to overcome the challenges of gender inequality in political, social, economic, education and cultural sectors across the world.

Alan A. Lew, C. Michael Hall, Allan M. Williams; A Companion to Tourism; Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2004

Unlike Hazel Tucker and Brenden Boonabaana (2012), one of the contributors of this, Stephen L. J. Smith measured the tourism industry in the global context. However, there is the similarity with that of H. Tucker and B. Boonabaana discussed the old debates relating to gender issues, and also endeavored to reach a new consensus. But there are challenges continuing challenges even after so many research and initiatives. However, in this book, different contributors discuss different topics related to gender and tourism. It is also argued that in the main topics of tourism literature, the scholars mainly discussed those related issues within ‘geographical framework’ (pXVIII).  And it is also evident from the image set no. 5. This is different from the approach taken by Hazel Tucker and Brenden Boonabaana (2012). The themes are also discussed from the viewpoint of communism with a view to dealing with the inequality.

In the end, we can summarize that there are areas of both consensus and disagreement among the scholars on the issues related to tourism and gender. They are unanimous that there is inequality; and various religious, cultural, regional, political, economic, social and such other factors are responsible for this inequality. However, the authors are different in their study-approaches to the facts. But all seek equality and justice for women like that of men in the tourism industry.