“Our human compassion binds us the one to the other – not in pity or patronizingly, but as human beings who have learned how to turn our common suffering into hope for the future” – Nelson Mandela
“If you want others to be happy, practice compassion. If you want to be happy, practice compassion” – Dalai Lama
One can see from the two quotes above from influential figures in the world that individuals need to be compassionate to be able to help one another deal with the hardships that come with life and that being compassionate not only helps those around us but the compassionate individual himself. One place where hardship can come from is in the workplace in the form of occupational or workplace stress.
Occupational stress has been widely investigated in many forms and context and is of particular interest to researchers as it can have very significant effects, coming at a high cost, on both the individual who is experiencing it as well as the organization for which they work (Noblet&LaMontagne, 2006).
An increasing body of evidence suggests that heightened levels of stress can have negative implications across different avenues of an individual’s life including decreased physical and psychological well-being and an adverse effect of the ability to perform well on work tasks (Quick, Murphy &Hurrell, 1992).
Work-related stress can have physical effects on individuals such as effecting cardiovascular activity and headaches as well as interrupting an individual’s sleep patterns as well as emotional consequences such as anxiety and aggression. Stress can make individuals change their behavior, at the end individuals can turn to socially unacceptable and possibly illegal measures such as turning to alcohol and substance abuse as a way of coping. These effects on the individuals will ultimately lead to negative outcomes for the organization as individuals performance, productivity and contributions can reduce as they experience low levels of drive and self-esteem so absenteeism and staff turnover will increase and the organization will not be able to perform to its optimum level and achieve the high results it would if staff were psychologically and physically at their peak.
The first stumbling block one comes across when looking at work-related stress is the definition of it, with it being such a thoroughly researched area of occupational psychology there is a vast array of definitions of stress available with some common factors running through them. Lazarus &Folkman (1984) describes stress as “a process of constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands or conflicts appraised as taxing or exceeding one’s resources.”
The World Health Organisations (WHO) states occupational stress as being a response which occurs when an individual’s knowledge and skillset do not equip them to meet with work demands and pressures, this is further aggravated by factors such as feeling a lack of support from supervisors and colleagues and little or no sense of control.
Stress itself is a state, not an illness, and it is widely accepted that a degree of heightened levels of stress can be healthy in terms of giving the individual motivation and drive to complete the task at hand to a high standard and in a timely manner and that this kind of pressure in moderation can even be seen as healthy. In fact “the vast majority of people who are exposed to stressful life events do not develop emotional disorder” (Kessler, Price &Wortman, 1985). In this sense, stress can be seen as a short-lived current state that lasts until and objective is met and, therefore, has no long-lasting effects. For example, an employee, or a department within an organization, may experience increased levels of stress in the run-up to meeting a vital deadline or getting a project completed, once this has been achieved they may feel a sense of relief and be free from the stress they had been momentarily experiencing. However, not all stress is short-lived. If an individual is exposed to this stress and pressure over a longer period of time or is simply unable to achieve the work that is expected of them it can manifest itself to the extent that it can lead to a weakened immune system thereby increasing one's likelihood of suffering from an array of long-lasting physical illnesses as well as psychological ones such as depression and peptic ulcers (Fried, 1988; Robles, Glaser &Kiecolt-Glaser, 2005). Over-exposure to stress can also lead to burnout: “a state of emotional, mental and physical exhaustion caused by excessive and prolonged stress” (www.helpguide.org). Work-related stress is not something that can be put to one side when one leaves the office, it can infiltrate into other areas of one’s life. Research has shown that individuals who experience work stress may take this stress home with them which in turn can lead to marital problems and sometimes even go as far as domestic violence (Jackson &Maslach, 1982; Barling& Rosenbaum, 1986). The fact that it can have such significant negative reverberations on more than just the individual and the organization makes the need to understand work-related stress more imperative as the better the understanding of it the more successfully it can be tackled.
The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is a non-departmental public body whose role it is to ensure that organizations follow good practice in regards to maintaining the health and safety of their staff at all times. The HSE describes stress as “the reaction people have to excessive pressures or other types of demand placed on them.” In 2011/12 the HSE reported that there were 428,000 cases of work-related stress accounting for forty percent of all work-related illnesses in that period.
Stress will be measured using Cohen's (1983) Perceived Stress Scale which asks 10 questions about the participants' perceptions of their stress over the course of the previous month.
Steptoe, O’Donnell, Marmot & Wardle (2008) identified many factors which when partnered with a lack of social support can lead to a break down in physical and mental health including work-related stresses and strains.
Job stress is correlated with depression, however, having social support, both from within the workplace and as a part of an individual’s personal life, can help reduce the chances of stress leading to depression. This supports the idea of Cohen & Willis’s (1985) theory of social support acting as a stress-buffer.
In their work focusing on the police force, Stephens& Long (2000) found those police officers reporting that they had social support in that they could discuss stress related to their work with their peers found it easier to cope with the inevitable stressful situations they experience as a part of their work.
The effects of social support on stress have also been proven by looking at the physiological presentations of stress. Increase in stress levels leads to increased cardiovascular activity in the form of increased blood pressure and heart rate, having social support in stressful situations can act as a buffer against these cardiovascular effects (Steptoe, 2000). In a study carried out in a laboratory setting O’Donovan & Hughes (2008) exposed participants to stressful situations and found that when they were alone there was an increase in their cardiovascular activity but when they experienced the same situation and setting with someone else with them, friend or stranger, that there was no change inactivity.
Not all research has agreed that social support reduces the physiological effects of stress. In their study on stress experienced when delivering a speech, Westmaas&Jamner (2006) had participants deliver speeches to a supportive audience and a neutral audience and found no significant difference in the stress-related physiological indicators recorded between the two speech conditions.
Job stress is correlated with depression; however, individuals with a social support network can get help to reduce the chances of stress leading to long-term illness such as depression (Lon, Probst&Hso, 2010). Research has shown that having poor social support is related to the onset of depression and for those who have suffered from depression in the past, it can lead to relapse (Paykel, 1984).
Loscocco&Spitze (1990) found that workers who have a support network and an understanding employer tend to have better mental health and well-being. Having a good support network means peoples perceptions of the stress they are experiencing in the workplace is lessened as they are provided with help and guidance from those around them as opposed to feeling additional pressure.
Without a supportive network of friends and family around them, people experiencing stress may feel alienated and could turn to other ways of trying to cope such as drug and alcohol abuse which can lead to further illnesses and complications, especially if they develop a dependency on their substance of choice. Timmer, Veroff& Colten (1985) found a negative correlation between alcohol abuse and likelihood to seek support from friends, colleagues, and family.
Whilst a lot of research has pointed towards the positive aspects of having social support some research has pointed out that for those individuals who have support from work colleagues and interact with them away from the workplace the most popular social activities revolve around the consumption of alcohol (Ames & James, 1990; Cosper, 1979). These socially active individuals are more likely to be heavy drinkers (Cahalan, Cisin& Crossley, 1969) and have an increased likelihood of alcohol abuse (Parker & Farmer, 1988).
For the current study, social support will be measured using the Interpersonal Evaluation List (ISEL) developed by Cohen &Hoberman (1985) which measures individuals own perceptions of the social support they have available to them from their friends and family. The 40 item scale consists of four subscales: tangible support, appraisal support, self-esteem support, and belonging support. Tangible support is ones perceptions of material aids at their disposal and appraisal support refers to the support once has in terms of people around them with whom they can discuss their problems. The self-esteem subscale is if they view themselves in a positive light when comparing self to others whilst the belonging support subscale is the perception of people on can approach to partake in various social activities and tasks with.
Prosocial behavior is behavior that is done for the benefit of other people, sometimes at the expense of the helper (Twenge, Baumeister, DeWall, Ciarocco& Bartels, 2007).
The present study will be looking at a specific type of prosocial behavior, compassionate love towards humanity and strangers which is a strong predictor of prosocial behavior in general. As the quote from the Dalai Lama earlier suggests it is widely believed that being compassionate can lead to happiness as much as being happy can lead to compassion.
Analyzing behavior from a socialization viewpoint one looks towards child-rearing patterns and also to an individual’s previous experiences in life, particularly in their childhood to see what could have shaped their behavior patterns in adulthood. There is also a cultural viewpoint whereby it is the cultural norms and values of the society in which one lives that will affect how they behave as there are set rules outlining appropriate forms of expressing aggressive and pro-social behaviors. It is safe to assume from this that individuals with strong social support from a young age may act in more favorable prosocial ways.
In terms of engaging in pro-social behaviors such as visiting and helping the sick and elderly, it is possible that those who do engage in such activities learn about the realities of the world around them such as interdependence and the importance of working to increase the well-being of the community (Ward, 1995). Ward (1995) also states that children who are not exposed to this type of pro-social behavior are at increased risk of an aggressive and anti-social lifestyle as adults which could lead to social exclusion and a lack of positive social support.
Pro-social behaviors such as helping and compassion are positively valued and socially desirable; those who exhibit such behaviors are more likely to be accepted by their peers.
Engaging in prosocial behaviors has generally shown an improvement in individual’s psychological well-being as it leaves one feeling content(Brown, Brown, House & Smith, 2008; Konrath, Fuhrel-Forbis& Brown, 2012).
Seppala (2013) suggests that promoting a culture of compassion and positive social behaviors and interactions in the working environment can help to reduce stress levels thereby increasing productivity levels which will benefit both the employees and the organization.
Feeling excluded from social groups may make individuals feel withdrawn and less likely to want to help others as they feel that this help would not be reciprocated if the roles were reversed.
Anan & Barnett’s (1999) study found that children who feel excluded and isolated were more likely to view an ambiguous situation as being hostile.
Twenge et al (2007) carried out many experiments putting participants in different situations and settings and found that socially excluded individuals were less likely to be helpful, less co-operative and less likely to donate money.
An individual who exhibits high levels of com[passion towards others is likely to perceive themselves as having more social support than a person exhibiting lower levels of compassion. This could be because they believe compassion to be a reciprocal process whereby if they care for others then surely others must care for them too (Crocker &Canavello, 2008). This suggests that a person who is willing to help others will be more willing to accept help from others when needed and will, therefore, have stronger social support than a less compassionate person.
Engaging in pro-social behavior leads to a reduction in the physiological indicators of stress (Floyd, Mikkelson, Tafoya, Farinelli, Valley, Judd, Haynes, Davis & Wilson, 2007).
Research on compassion has tended to focus on self-compassion. Researching compassionate love towards strangers and humanity as opposed to oneself or close others acts as a better indicator of pro-social behavior (Sprecher& Fehr, 2005).Sprecher& Fehr (2005) developed the Compassionate Love for Humanity Scale which measures “an attitude towards humanity that involved behavior, feeling, and thinking that focuses on concern, caring, and support for humanity, as well as a motivation to understand and help humanity (strangers) when they are most in need.” This measure is interesting in that it focuses on compassion and altruism towards strangers as opposed to friends and family. The measure consists of 21 items to be answered using a 7-point Likert-type scale.
Social support - be it from friends, family or colleagues – leads to improved psychological well-being and improved physical health. House (1981) found that individuals who experience higher levels of stress in the workplace have been shown to have worse levels of physical health.
To be able to maintain good levels of mental and physical health it is vital that one has a strong social support network (Southwick, Vythilingam&Charney, 2005; Norris, Friedman, Watson, Byrne, Diaz &Kaniastry, 2002). Having social support can give an individual a sense of belonging and purpose, increase their perception of their self-worth and give them an increased feeling of security.
Having an active social life and good social relationships has been shown to increase longevity amongst the elderly (Rodriguez-Laso, Zunzunegui& Otero, 2007).
General health will be measured using GHQ-12 which is a shortened, yet valid and reliable, version of the General Health Questionnaire which can be used to screen for minor psychiatric and non-psychotic disorders.
The gambling industry is an expanding industry which has faced much public scrutiny recently due to the argument that it brings anti-social behavior to the British high streets. However, the concern is not limited to those who are exposed to gambling but also to the staff who must deal with these people on a day-to-day basis. The recent introduction of single-staffing in betting shops for quieter branches has attracted publicity regarding the safety of betting shop staff.
Working in a position that involves elements of danger and risk can lead to low well-being as individuals are constantly on edge that the next person they come across may be a threat to them (Clarke & Cooper, 2004).
Local councils and residents are becoming wary of how densely populated high streets, especially in more deprived areas, with betting shops to the extent where they are now attempting harder than ever to prevent companies from getting their operating licenses based on the anti-social behaviors they believe that gambling breeds.
It is generally accepted that problem gamblers, those who spend more than their disposable income funding their habit can turn to crimes such as theft to fund their addictions (Griffiths, 2006).
Farnsworth, Leather & Cox (1990) highlight that in jobs where staff feel that they are 'at risk' of physical or verbal abuse they are constantly experiencing heightened levels of stress. Farnsworth et al (1990) identified possible causes of violent incidents in pubs some of which may apply in betting shops (Griffiths, 2011): blue-collar not white-collar people are more likely to frequent betting shops and the fact that people often come into betting shops after they have been drinking.
Whilst there have been researches carried out on violent crime against businesses in the UK, betting shops have been left out of this research and this is something that needs to be researched, especially as the number of betting shops is increasing rapidly (Griffiths, 2011).
Figures released by the Metropolitan Police after a freedom of information request show that between January 2005 and June 2011 there were at least 2,420 violent incidents against another person in betting shops across London. Between April 2008 and June 2011, there were 688 robberies in London betting shops where a gun was used (Murphy, 2012).
It should be noted that the current study focuses on the stresses experienced from the members of staff employed to work in the face-to-face customer service environment of the betting shops and not on the stresses of the gamblers.
Based on the above research the hypotheses for the correlation tests in the current study are: (a) stress and social support will be negatively correlated; (b) stress and compassion for humanity will be negatively correlated, and (c) there will be a positive correlation between social support and compassion for humanity. On the basis of these hypotheses it is further hypothesized that using multiple regression: (a) social support will be predicted using a model of compassion for humanity and stress; (b) compassion for humanity will be predicted using a model of social support and stress, and (c) a model made up of social support and compassion for humanity will be able to predict stress.
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“If you want others to be happy, practice compassion. If you want to be happy, practice compassion” – Dalai Lama
One can see from the two quotes above from influential figures in the world that individuals need to be compassionate to be able to help one another deal with the hardships that come with life and that being compassionate not only helps those around us but the compassionate individual himself. One place where hardship can come from is in the workplace in the form of occupational or workplace stress.
Occupational stress has been widely investigated in many forms and context and is of particular interest to researchers as it can have very significant effects, coming at a high cost, on both the individual who is experiencing it as well as the organization for which they work (Noblet&LaMontagne, 2006).
An increasing body of evidence suggests that heightened levels of stress can have negative implications across different avenues of an individual’s life including decreased physical and psychological well-being and an adverse effect of the ability to perform well on work tasks (Quick, Murphy &Hurrell, 1992).
Work-related stress can have physical effects on individuals such as effecting cardiovascular activity and headaches as well as interrupting an individual’s sleep patterns as well as emotional consequences such as anxiety and aggression. Stress can make individuals change their behavior, at the end individuals can turn to socially unacceptable and possibly illegal measures such as turning to alcohol and substance abuse as a way of coping. These effects on the individuals will ultimately lead to negative outcomes for the organization as individuals performance, productivity and contributions can reduce as they experience low levels of drive and self-esteem so absenteeism and staff turnover will increase and the organization will not be able to perform to its optimum level and achieve the high results it would if staff were psychologically and physically at their peak.
The first stumbling block one comes across when looking at work-related stress is the definition of it, with it being such a thoroughly researched area of occupational psychology there is a vast array of definitions of stress available with some common factors running through them. Lazarus &Folkman (1984) describes stress as “a process of constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands or conflicts appraised as taxing or exceeding one’s resources.”
The World Health Organisations (WHO) states occupational stress as being a response which occurs when an individual’s knowledge and skillset do not equip them to meet with work demands and pressures, this is further aggravated by factors such as feeling a lack of support from supervisors and colleagues and little or no sense of control.
Stress itself is a state, not an illness, and it is widely accepted that a degree of heightened levels of stress can be healthy in terms of giving the individual motivation and drive to complete the task at hand to a high standard and in a timely manner and that this kind of pressure in moderation can even be seen as healthy. In fact “the vast majority of people who are exposed to stressful life events do not develop emotional disorder” (Kessler, Price &Wortman, 1985). In this sense, stress can be seen as a short-lived current state that lasts until and objective is met and, therefore, has no long-lasting effects. For example, an employee, or a department within an organization, may experience increased levels of stress in the run-up to meeting a vital deadline or getting a project completed, once this has been achieved they may feel a sense of relief and be free from the stress they had been momentarily experiencing. However, not all stress is short-lived. If an individual is exposed to this stress and pressure over a longer period of time or is simply unable to achieve the work that is expected of them it can manifest itself to the extent that it can lead to a weakened immune system thereby increasing one's likelihood of suffering from an array of long-lasting physical illnesses as well as psychological ones such as depression and peptic ulcers (Fried, 1988; Robles, Glaser &Kiecolt-Glaser, 2005). Over-exposure to stress can also lead to burnout: “a state of emotional, mental and physical exhaustion caused by excessive and prolonged stress” (www.helpguide.org). Work-related stress is not something that can be put to one side when one leaves the office, it can infiltrate into other areas of one’s life. Research has shown that individuals who experience work stress may take this stress home with them which in turn can lead to marital problems and sometimes even go as far as domestic violence (Jackson &Maslach, 1982; Barling& Rosenbaum, 1986). The fact that it can have such significant negative reverberations on more than just the individual and the organization makes the need to understand work-related stress more imperative as the better the understanding of it the more successfully it can be tackled.
The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is a non-departmental public body whose role it is to ensure that organizations follow good practice in regards to maintaining the health and safety of their staff at all times. The HSE describes stress as “the reaction people have to excessive pressures or other types of demand placed on them.” In 2011/12 the HSE reported that there were 428,000 cases of work-related stress accounting for forty percent of all work-related illnesses in that period.
Stress will be measured using Cohen's (1983) Perceived Stress Scale which asks 10 questions about the participants' perceptions of their stress over the course of the previous month.
Stress & Social Support
Psychologists have done much research into investigating an individual’s ways of coping with work-related stress. Having a social support network has been found to act as a buffer against the effects of stress with individuals with a stronger support network finding potentially stressful situations to be less of a threat than those with weaker networks (Beehr, Jex, Stacy & Murray, 2000; Cohen & Willis, 1985). Social support was described by Cohen&Willis (1985) as “the resources provided by other persons,” by this definition it can clearly be assumed that individuals with social support can draw upon the knowledge and experience from those around them to help them to figure out how best to deal with the situation which they are trying to cope with.Steptoe, O’Donnell, Marmot & Wardle (2008) identified many factors which when partnered with a lack of social support can lead to a break down in physical and mental health including work-related stresses and strains.
Job stress is correlated with depression, however, having social support, both from within the workplace and as a part of an individual’s personal life, can help reduce the chances of stress leading to depression. This supports the idea of Cohen & Willis’s (1985) theory of social support acting as a stress-buffer.
In their work focusing on the police force, Stephens& Long (2000) found those police officers reporting that they had social support in that they could discuss stress related to their work with their peers found it easier to cope with the inevitable stressful situations they experience as a part of their work.
The effects of social support on stress have also been proven by looking at the physiological presentations of stress. Increase in stress levels leads to increased cardiovascular activity in the form of increased blood pressure and heart rate, having social support in stressful situations can act as a buffer against these cardiovascular effects (Steptoe, 2000). In a study carried out in a laboratory setting O’Donovan & Hughes (2008) exposed participants to stressful situations and found that when they were alone there was an increase in their cardiovascular activity but when they experienced the same situation and setting with someone else with them, friend or stranger, that there was no change inactivity.
Not all research has agreed that social support reduces the physiological effects of stress. In their study on stress experienced when delivering a speech, Westmaas&Jamner (2006) had participants deliver speeches to a supportive audience and a neutral audience and found no significant difference in the stress-related physiological indicators recorded between the two speech conditions.
Job stress is correlated with depression; however, individuals with a social support network can get help to reduce the chances of stress leading to long-term illness such as depression (Lon, Probst&Hso, 2010). Research has shown that having poor social support is related to the onset of depression and for those who have suffered from depression in the past, it can lead to relapse (Paykel, 1984).
Loscocco&Spitze (1990) found that workers who have a support network and an understanding employer tend to have better mental health and well-being. Having a good support network means peoples perceptions of the stress they are experiencing in the workplace is lessened as they are provided with help and guidance from those around them as opposed to feeling additional pressure.
Without a supportive network of friends and family around them, people experiencing stress may feel alienated and could turn to other ways of trying to cope such as drug and alcohol abuse which can lead to further illnesses and complications, especially if they develop a dependency on their substance of choice. Timmer, Veroff& Colten (1985) found a negative correlation between alcohol abuse and likelihood to seek support from friends, colleagues, and family.
Whilst a lot of research has pointed towards the positive aspects of having social support some research has pointed out that for those individuals who have support from work colleagues and interact with them away from the workplace the most popular social activities revolve around the consumption of alcohol (Ames & James, 1990; Cosper, 1979). These socially active individuals are more likely to be heavy drinkers (Cahalan, Cisin& Crossley, 1969) and have an increased likelihood of alcohol abuse (Parker & Farmer, 1988).
For the current study, social support will be measured using the Interpersonal Evaluation List (ISEL) developed by Cohen &Hoberman (1985) which measures individuals own perceptions of the social support they have available to them from their friends and family. The 40 item scale consists of four subscales: tangible support, appraisal support, self-esteem support, and belonging support. Tangible support is ones perceptions of material aids at their disposal and appraisal support refers to the support once has in terms of people around them with whom they can discuss their problems. The self-esteem subscale is if they view themselves in a positive light when comparing self to others whilst the belonging support subscale is the perception of people on can approach to partake in various social activities and tasks with.
Stress & Compassion for Humanity
The term “pro-social” was introduced into social science literature to provide a term which was directly opposite to the existing term “anti-social” (Wispe, 1972). It is therefore generally expected that if a person displays high levels of pro-social behaviors, such as cooperation and altruism, they will display low levels of anti-social behaviors, such as aggression.Prosocial behavior is behavior that is done for the benefit of other people, sometimes at the expense of the helper (Twenge, Baumeister, DeWall, Ciarocco& Bartels, 2007).
The present study will be looking at a specific type of prosocial behavior, compassionate love towards humanity and strangers which is a strong predictor of prosocial behavior in general. As the quote from the Dalai Lama earlier suggests it is widely believed that being compassionate can lead to happiness as much as being happy can lead to compassion.
Analyzing behavior from a socialization viewpoint one looks towards child-rearing patterns and also to an individual’s previous experiences in life, particularly in their childhood to see what could have shaped their behavior patterns in adulthood. There is also a cultural viewpoint whereby it is the cultural norms and values of the society in which one lives that will affect how they behave as there are set rules outlining appropriate forms of expressing aggressive and pro-social behaviors. It is safe to assume from this that individuals with strong social support from a young age may act in more favorable prosocial ways.
In terms of engaging in pro-social behaviors such as visiting and helping the sick and elderly, it is possible that those who do engage in such activities learn about the realities of the world around them such as interdependence and the importance of working to increase the well-being of the community (Ward, 1995). Ward (1995) also states that children who are not exposed to this type of pro-social behavior are at increased risk of an aggressive and anti-social lifestyle as adults which could lead to social exclusion and a lack of positive social support.
Pro-social behaviors such as helping and compassion are positively valued and socially desirable; those who exhibit such behaviors are more likely to be accepted by their peers.
Engaging in prosocial behaviors has generally shown an improvement in individual’s psychological well-being as it leaves one feeling content(Brown, Brown, House & Smith, 2008; Konrath, Fuhrel-Forbis& Brown, 2012).
Seppala (2013) suggests that promoting a culture of compassion and positive social behaviors and interactions in the working environment can help to reduce stress levels thereby increasing productivity levels which will benefit both the employees and the organization.
Compassion for Humanity & Social Support
Individuals who experience social rejection are less likely to engage in pro-social behavior (Wentzel& McNamara, 1999). In much the same light, people who do engage in pro-social behavior are more likely to be accepted by their peers (Schonert-Reichl, 1999).Feeling excluded from social groups may make individuals feel withdrawn and less likely to want to help others as they feel that this help would not be reciprocated if the roles were reversed.
Anan & Barnett’s (1999) study found that children who feel excluded and isolated were more likely to view an ambiguous situation as being hostile.
Twenge et al (2007) carried out many experiments putting participants in different situations and settings and found that socially excluded individuals were less likely to be helpful, less co-operative and less likely to donate money.
An individual who exhibits high levels of com[passion towards others is likely to perceive themselves as having more social support than a person exhibiting lower levels of compassion. This could be because they believe compassion to be a reciprocal process whereby if they care for others then surely others must care for them too (Crocker &Canavello, 2008). This suggests that a person who is willing to help others will be more willing to accept help from others when needed and will, therefore, have stronger social support than a less compassionate person.
Engaging in pro-social behavior leads to a reduction in the physiological indicators of stress (Floyd, Mikkelson, Tafoya, Farinelli, Valley, Judd, Haynes, Davis & Wilson, 2007).
Research on compassion has tended to focus on self-compassion. Researching compassionate love towards strangers and humanity as opposed to oneself or close others acts as a better indicator of pro-social behavior (Sprecher& Fehr, 2005).Sprecher& Fehr (2005) developed the Compassionate Love for Humanity Scale which measures “an attitude towards humanity that involved behavior, feeling, and thinking that focuses on concern, caring, and support for humanity, as well as a motivation to understand and help humanity (strangers) when they are most in need.” This measure is interesting in that it focuses on compassion and altruism towards strangers as opposed to friends and family. The measure consists of 21 items to be answered using a 7-point Likert-type scale.
General Health
Whilst stress itself is a state and not a psychiatric disorder prolonged exposure to stress can lead to more long-lasting illnesses including mental illness. For the participants will also be asked to complete a questionnaire about their general health. Whilst this is not the main focus of the study it may be able to help create a predictive model.Social support - be it from friends, family or colleagues – leads to improved psychological well-being and improved physical health. House (1981) found that individuals who experience higher levels of stress in the workplace have been shown to have worse levels of physical health.
To be able to maintain good levels of mental and physical health it is vital that one has a strong social support network (Southwick, Vythilingam&Charney, 2005; Norris, Friedman, Watson, Byrne, Diaz &Kaniastry, 2002). Having social support can give an individual a sense of belonging and purpose, increase their perception of their self-worth and give them an increased feeling of security.
Having an active social life and good social relationships has been shown to increase longevity amongst the elderly (Rodriguez-Laso, Zunzunegui& Otero, 2007).
General health will be measured using GHQ-12 which is a shortened, yet valid and reliable, version of the General Health Questionnaire which can be used to screen for minor psychiatric and non-psychotic disorders.
Stress amongst Betting Shop Employees
The current study will be looking at the effects of social support, compassion to humanity and general health on perceived stress amongst individuals working within the betting industry.The gambling industry is an expanding industry which has faced much public scrutiny recently due to the argument that it brings anti-social behavior to the British high streets. However, the concern is not limited to those who are exposed to gambling but also to the staff who must deal with these people on a day-to-day basis. The recent introduction of single-staffing in betting shops for quieter branches has attracted publicity regarding the safety of betting shop staff.
Working in a position that involves elements of danger and risk can lead to low well-being as individuals are constantly on edge that the next person they come across may be a threat to them (Clarke & Cooper, 2004).
Local councils and residents are becoming wary of how densely populated high streets, especially in more deprived areas, with betting shops to the extent where they are now attempting harder than ever to prevent companies from getting their operating licenses based on the anti-social behaviors they believe that gambling breeds.
It is generally accepted that problem gamblers, those who spend more than their disposable income funding their habit can turn to crimes such as theft to fund their addictions (Griffiths, 2006).
Farnsworth, Leather & Cox (1990) highlight that in jobs where staff feel that they are 'at risk' of physical or verbal abuse they are constantly experiencing heightened levels of stress. Farnsworth et al (1990) identified possible causes of violent incidents in pubs some of which may apply in betting shops (Griffiths, 2011): blue-collar not white-collar people are more likely to frequent betting shops and the fact that people often come into betting shops after they have been drinking.
Whilst there have been researches carried out on violent crime against businesses in the UK, betting shops have been left out of this research and this is something that needs to be researched, especially as the number of betting shops is increasing rapidly (Griffiths, 2011).
Figures released by the Metropolitan Police after a freedom of information request show that between January 2005 and June 2011 there were at least 2,420 violent incidents against another person in betting shops across London. Between April 2008 and June 2011, there were 688 robberies in London betting shops where a gun was used (Murphy, 2012).
It should be noted that the current study focuses on the stresses experienced from the members of staff employed to work in the face-to-face customer service environment of the betting shops and not on the stresses of the gamblers.
Aims of the Current Study
Relationship between perceived stress, compassion for humanity and social support will be tested for. Further tests will then be carried out to see whether or not it is possible to predict any of these three variables by using the others as predictor variables.Based on the above research the hypotheses for the correlation tests in the current study are: (a) stress and social support will be negatively correlated; (b) stress and compassion for humanity will be negatively correlated, and (c) there will be a positive correlation between social support and compassion for humanity. On the basis of these hypotheses it is further hypothesized that using multiple regression: (a) social support will be predicted using a model of compassion for humanity and stress; (b) compassion for humanity will be predicted using a model of social support and stress, and (c) a model made up of social support and compassion for humanity will be able to predict stress.
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